Introduction
The literary heritage of the ancient world is accessible in modern times in the form of manuscripts: thus, manuscripts serve as primary keys to help unlock the life and sensibilities of the past. The oral tradition in literature is also widespread, but it assumed exceptional scale and sophistication in India during the Vedic age. Lasting in this form for many millennia after they were created, the Vedas germinated the first building blocks of Indian civilization.
The first part of the article addresses the extraordinary journey in the evolution of chanting of Vedic hymns, where a new musical tradition emerged from the older mode, in the form of Sāmavedic Chanting. This journey also reveals the first gestative signs of Indian music, its elements and structures as recognized and practised in the present time.
This purports as living evidence, as the indicators above can be followed in the present-day Sama chanting of traditionally acknowledged Vedic scholars.
The earliest literary reference to music in ancient India is contained in Vedic literature. As is well known, the four Vedas Rk, Sama, Yajur and Atharva, are the first literary works of India, and they continue to exercise great influence on spiritual and cultural life, and even on day-to-day existence in India till the present. In essence they mirror the life of the Indian people of that time, from their profoundest wisdom to adoration of nature, speculation on Creation and Existence, daily ritual practices and even their scientific and technical knowledge.
The literary form that bears this communication is the mantra, the closest English equivalent of which is ‘hymn’, and the Indian musical journey also begins with it. We are able to follow the sequence of evolution of Indian music from this point of commencement, tracing the development of Svaras/musical notes, as well as the seeds of some of its fundamental techniques which were sown during the Vedic period.
The present study is an attempt to explore this journey, for a brief outline of the evolution of Samavedic recitation from Vedic chanting, the forms in which this practice has survived in the present time, and how this constitutes the first point of reference for Indian music.
The Vedic Svara
Vedic knowledge has travelled through a vast span of time of about three millennia or more and has been preserved largely through an oral medium. It is only in the last couple of centuries that the Vedic texts were published from ancient manuscripts and made available to general readership. From ancient times, Vedic hymns were passed on from teacher to disciple through the oral tradition of chanting, which perhaps facilitated correct enunciation and easy memorization of the hymns.
The tradition of Vedic chanting may be broadly classified into two streams:
1) Chanting of hymns of Rgveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda in the three Vedic Svara or accents, namely Udātta, Anudātta and Svarita; and Pracaya, whose position is the same as Udātta.
2) (i) Chanting of hymns of Samaveda (Ārcika/R̥cā) in the accents mentioned above.
(ii) Singing of hymns of Samaveda (Gāna/song) in four to seven Vedic Svaras or musical notes, namely Kruşța, Prathama, Dvitiya, Tr̥tīya, Caturtha, Mandra and Atisvārya.
Vedic Svara was critically important, as the meaning of a Rca/mantra changed with any incorrect use of Svara. In fact, the Vedic Svara is defined as ‘the note which signifies the meaning of a word. 10 Năradiya Śikşā, the famous treatise on Śikşa (which deals with the Vedic methods of pronunciation), contends that if a Mantra is pronounced in an incorrect note, it fails to express the intended meaning. Thus, it is imperative that the mantras are chanted in the designated precise svaras. Scholars and students of the Veda adhere to this tradition rigorously even today.
The three accents: Anudātta, Udātta and Svarita are defined by ancient scholars as the lower, upper and middle pitch; Anudātta’, denoting the lower pitch, ‘Udātta’ the upper pitch and ‘Svarita’, the middle pitch.” However, at a later date some scholars have interpreted the position of Svarita as not the ‘middle pitch’ between Anudātta and Udātta but as higher than that of Udātta, and contend that the position of Svarita as the middle pitch may be considered only from the linguistic point of view. These R̥gvedic accents may be equated to Ni, Sa and Ri of the contemporary Indian musical scale, a fact supported by actual practice. Anudātta corresponds to the musical note komal Nişada/Ni, Udātta corresponds to Şadja/Sa, and Svarita to komal Rşabha/Ri of the Hindustani music scale prevalent today.
These Vedic Svaras gradually developed into seven musical notes in the singing tradition of Samaveda.
Svara: The Hindustani ‘Note’
Svara, the Indian counterpart of the western ‘Note’ is the primary and principal ingredient of music. The term Svara is defined in the Mahabhasya as ‘svayam rajanta iti’, meaning ‘that which sparkles without an external support’. 12 In Samgita Ratnakara, the 13th century scholar-musicologist Sharngadeva defines Svara as that which pleases the listener – Svato rañjayati śrotrcittam sa svara ucyate 13 In fact the entire structure of Indian music is based on the Svara. There are seven basic or śuddha Svaras and five vikṛta Svaras, which deviate somewhat from their original designated positions. The śuddha Svaras are known as Şadja, Rşabha, Gândhāra, Madhyama, Pañcama, Dhaivata and Nişāda.
The principal concepts in Indian music such as Grama, Múrcchană, Jāti and Raga are primarily based on Svaras. These are closely associated with each other. Grāma denotes a group of Svaras which are systematically arranged or positioned among the Śrutis, which are microtones or fine division of musical sound that can be heard and distinguished from one another. Mürcchană denotes the ascending and descending order of Svaras, and the beautiful musical phrases created by them. Jāti, the predecessor of Raga was born of Mürcchană and may be defined as a group of specific notes endowed with specific characteristic features. Raga is the fundamental concept of Indian music today. Though similar to Jāti, Raga is abstract in nature. It has a distinct character of its own, which is unique in the world of music.
The Vedic Svaras used in the enunciation or singing of the hymns of the Samaveda, and the manner in which they are employed, appear to bear the seeds of some of the concepts of Indian music mentioned above such as Grama and Murcchand. Thus, it is imperative to seek the roots of the seven Svaras of Indian music, as in the history of Indian music seven musical notes were employed for the first time in the singing of Samavedic hymns.
The Samavedic Link
Samaveda largely contains Rcas¹ from the Rgveda, which when sung, largely constitute the Samavedic text, the rendering of which is considered as the most ancient musical form of India. Samavedic mantras were sung in four to seven Svaras, a practice still preserved by the traditional Sama scholars.
The term ‘Sama’ thus indicates the musical rendering of the R̥cā. It is said ‘Gitişu sāmākhyā’, i.e. ‘R̥cā, when sung becomes Sama’ or ‘Sama is Music’. 15 The Chandogya Upaniṣad confirms Rci adhyudham Sama’, i.e. Sama is adhisthita or based on Rk; and ‘Ya Rk tat Sama’, i.e. Rk and Sama are the same. 16 Principally, mantras of the R̥gveda which are sung, using the Sāman Svaras constitute the Sāma Samhitā.
In the 2nd century BC, Bharata states ‘Samabhyo gītameva ca’, i.e. Gita (in nățya/theatre) was adopted from the Samaveda, and in the 8th century, Matariga in his Brhaddeși states that the seven Svaras originated from the Samaveda and the basic scales arose from these Svaras, Samavedad svaro jātaḥ svarebhyo gānasambhavāh’. Sharngadeva states that the Creator acquired the basics of the science of music from the Samaveda, ‘Samavedadidam gitam sañjagraha pitāmahaḥ. The Mandukya Śikşă also states that seven Svaras are sung by the Sama singers, Saptasvarāstu giyante samabhiḥ sāmagairbudhaih’. The significance of the Samaveda with respect to origins of Indian music is thus indisputably established in the ancient treatises.
Pūrvārcika and Uttarārcika
The Samaveda has two principal parts: Ārcika and Gana. The Arcika is related to the Rcas of the Rgveda, which are sung. It has two parts, namely Pūrvārcika and Uttarārcika. The Gana portion includes the same Rcās in the form of gana or songs. There may be more than one song for a particular Rca. For instance, there are three Sama or songs for the Rca Tvamindra baladadhi’. In some instances of Gramegeya gana the number of songs goes up to as many as eighteen songs based on only one R̥cā.
The Rcas in the Gana portion are known by the name of their Rșis, who in many cases are not the same as ascribed in the Rgveda: i.e. a Rcă ascribed to a particular Rși in the Rgveda Samhitā or the Samaveda Samhită, may be ascribed to a different Rși in the Sămagana Samhita, who may have perceived it as a Sama or song.
The Pūrvārcika contains six Prapāțhaka or chapters, of which the first is known as Agneya parva as it is related to Rcas dedicated to the deity Agni. The second to fourth chapters are devoted to the praise of Indra, and thus known as Aindra parva, and the fifth chapter is known as Pavamana parva as it is related to Pavamāna Soma. The sixth chapter is named Aranyaka parva, where different deities are praised. In the end there are ten more Rcās known as Mahānāmni, which constitute the Pariśişța of the Pūrvārcika.
The R̥cās of the first to fifth chapters are called Grâme geya gana as they are sung in grāma or villages. The Rcas of the sixth chapter are called Aranye geya gana as they are sung in araṇya or forests. These mantras deal with the installation of divine powers and were thus required to be practised and sung in secluded places.
The order of R̥cās in the Grame geya gana strictly adheres to the Samhitākrama or the order of mantras as in the Samhita, which is not always followed in the case of Aranye geya gana. Sometimes the Reas of the previous chapters are inserted between them. One such instance is ‘Ayamgau…’ that is sung after the R̥cā Antaścarati…’ which is not the original order of the Samhita.
The mantras of the Uha gana are taken from the Grame geya gana and arranged for chanting/singing in the Soma yajña/sacrifices.
The Uttararcika contains nine Prapathaka or chapters. About 267 R̥cās from the Pūrvārcika are repeated in the Uttararcika. The text of Uttarārcika is used in the Uhya gāna, which is also known as Rahasya gana or Uşani (by Kerala-Jaiminīyas). These songs, also known as Uttaragana, contain mantras that were employed to conduct sacrificial rites. These gana (songs) are said to be more complicated than the ganas of the Pūrvārcika.
The Development of Seven Svara
According to Naradiya Shiksha, the three Rgvedic accents developed into seven musical notes during the period of the Samaveda. The notes Ga and Ni originated from Udatta, Ri and Dha from Anudatta and Sa, Ma and Pa from Svarita.
Udatte nişādagāndhāravanudatta rşabhadhaivatau.
Svaritaprabhavā hyete şadjamadhyamapañcamāh
-Accordingly all seven Svaras owe their origin to the three original Rgvedic accents: –
1. Nişāda and Gandhāra originate from Udātta
2. Rşabha and Dhaivata from Anudātta
3. Şadja, Madhyama and Pañcama from Svarita
The same treatise (Naradiya Shiksha) refers to the seven svaras of the Samavedic era as Prathama, Dvitiya, Trtiya, Caturtha, Mandra, Atisvāra and Kruşta, –
Prathamaśca dvitīyaśca trtiyoatha caturthakah.
Mandraḥ kruşto hyatisvāra etān kurvanti sāmagāḥ.
Bharata, in his Natya Shastra fixed the notes Sa, Ma, and Pa as having four Śrutis each, Ri and Dha of three Śrutis each and Ga and Ni of two Śrutis each with regard to the Sa-scale of Gandharva music. Abhinavagupta in his commentary on Natya Shastra identifies Udatta with four Śruti- notes as it is ucca (i.e. exalted). 20 Prof. G. H. Tarlekar comments that it appears that the concept of notes arising from the accents was changed while considering their musical significance, as Abhinavagupta identifies the two Śruti-note with Anudatta and three Śruti-note with Svarita. The additional lower and upper notes developed following the principle of consonance and assumed a scientific form through the medium of the Vedic sacrificial ritual, particularly the ‘Soma sacrifice’.
Five notes, namely Udātta, Anudātta, Svarita, Pracaya and Sannatara are found in the Saṁhitā-pāṭha of Sāma Saṁhitā, of which Pracaya and Sannatara are actually born of Svarita.
The Vedic Svara was known as ‘Yama’. In his commentary, Sayana states ‘Kruştādaya eva Yamā ucyante te ca uttarottaram nīcā bhavanti Kruşta and others (Svaras) are known as Yama and they are placed in a descending order. The use of the term Yama is noteworthy as it means ‘that which controls, regulates or determines’. Yama or Svara in the present context determines the meaning of a (Vedic) word and also the musical sound.
The first four Yama were named as numbers such as Prathama, Dvitiya, Tritiya and Caturtha; while the other three had descriptive names such as Mandra, Krusta and Atisvarya. This indicates a gradual development of Mer Svaras. It appears that initially there were four Svaras in the Sama grama, which were named as numbers. Krusta etc were later additions and were named according to their qualities. Mandra denotes ‘low’; thus, it was lower than the already existent lowest note, which was Chaturtha. Atisvarya was even lower than Mandra and was perhaps the lowest note discovered during that era. Kruşța was derived from the root Krus, which means ‘to shout’ or ‘to speak very loudly’. Thus it became the highest note so far known. The complete Saptaka (collection of seven notes, an equivalent of the western Octave of the later era) thus included Kruşta, Prathama, Dvitiya, Tritiya, Caturtha, Mandra and Atisvārya (in this order), which indicates that the Samavedic Svaras were sung in a descending order. Mandra is known as Pañcama (or fifth) Svara, Şaştha: (sixth) Atisvara and Saptama: (seventh) Kruşța. Scholars vary in their opinion about the placement of the seventh note: according to some it is the last note while others believe that it is the highest note.
According to Naradiya Shiksha, the first Svara of the Samagas is the Madhyama Svara of the bamboo flute.
Yah samaganām prathamaḥ sa veņormadhyamah svarah.
Yo dvitīyah sa gândhāraḥ trtīyastvarșabhaḥ smrtah.
Caturthah Şadja ityāhuḥ pañcamo dhaivato bhavet.
Şaştho nişādo vijñeyaḥ saptamaḥ pañcamah smrtah.
– the first note of the Samaga is known as the Madhyama of the bamboo flute, the second one is Gandhara, the third is Rsabha, the fourth Şadja, the fifth is Dhaivata, the sixth is Nişāda and the seventh one is regarded as the Pancama (of the bamboo flute).
Thus, these Svaras principally correspond to the Madhyama, Gandhāra, Rşabha, Şadja, Dhaivata, Nişāda and Pañcama Svara (Ma Ga, Ri, Sa, Dha, Ni, Pa) of the bamboo flute. The order of Dhaivata and Nişāda vary from that of the music of a later era. The fifth Svara of Sâmagāna was also known as Mandra, the sixth or şaştha Svara as Atisvārya. and the seventh as Kruşța, which is considered the highest Sama Svara. These seven notes further developed into twelve at a later date, the relevance of which is traced to the later tradition of Rāgas.
Although the seven notes developed during the Samavedic era, not all Sama mantras were sung using all of them. In fact, according to Pushpa Sutra, very few Sama mantras were sung using seven Svaras ‘the Kauthuma school of Samagas (Sama singers) sing most of the Sama mantras using five svaras, a few in six svaras and two of them in seven svaras’.
The Naradiya Shiksha refers to different Sama singers who used different svaras. For instance, the ‘Ahvaraka’ used Dvitiya, Prathama and Kruşta Svaras while the ‘Taittiriya’ used Dvitiya, Tritiya, Caturtha and Mandra. 26 In his commentary (on Naradiya Shiksha), Bhatta Shobhakar writes, Kruştah uccah madhyamaḥ prathamaḥ svarah’, i.e. Krusta was a high note, and was the first, and corresponded with the Madhyama of the laukika Grāma.
Thus, it may be concluded from the Shiksha texts that the first Sama note was Madhyama and the seven Säma Svaras were sung in the descending order starting from Madhyama.
The Shiksha texts also refer to Gătraviņā, which is not a musical instrument as the name suggests, but is actually a well defined technique of moving the palm or of touching the fingers with the thumb, which denote the particular Svaras.
The Singing of Sama
Sāma-singing was a structured, sequenced performance presented by a group with distinct roles for each member of the group. The Saman singers are known as Prastotā/Prastotr, Udgātā/Udgātṛ and Pratiharta/Pratihartr and Subrahmanya, among whom the chief singer is Udgātā.
Sāma singing is divided into five parts called Bhakti, namely:
1. Huṁkāra or Hiṁkāra
2. Prastāva
3. Udgītha
4. Pratihāra
5. Nidhāna
At commencement all Saman singers sing ‘Hum’ or Huṁkāra together. Thereafter, the Prastotā sings the Prastava or the first part of the mantral song. Then the Udgātā sings the Udgītha, which constitutes the major and the key section. The Pratiharta takes on from the last line of the Udgitha to sing the Pratihara. The final section Nidhana is sung collectively by the Prastotā, Udgātā and Pratiharta, after which all conclude by singing ‘Om’ in unison. Subrahmanya has a specific duty of chanting subrahmaṇyāhvāna.
In some cases, two more sections are added, dividing the Sama into seven parts which are as follows:
1. Huṁkāra or Hiṁkāra
2. Prastāva
3. Ādi
4. Udgītha
5. Pratihāra
6. Upadrava
7. Nidhāna
Here the first part of Udgītha is regarded as Adi and the final part of Pratihāra as Upadrava. There is little difference with regard to its music. The Upadrava part is sung by the Udgātā.
The traditional manner of Sama-singing mentioned here is still prevalent as part of Śrauta Yajña in some parts of India.